Paternity Actions in California

Establishing the fact of paternity can be a major factor in a child’s life, both psychologically and economically.

A child born to a married couple is considered legitimate in the eyes of the law. However, the fact that a person’s name appears on a birth certificate is not conclusive proof of paternity. Since there is no requirement that a father sign a birth certificate, a mother may list anyone whom she believes is, or wants to be, the father.

The significance of a paternity determination is multifold. For a father who resists parentage, it means that he will now be held accountable for his share of support and responsibility. For a father who wishes to establish that he is the biological parent, he can do so with relative ease of procedure. Importantly, if the child is born out of wedlock, consent from the biological father is needed before the mother can give the child up for adoption.

For a mother, paternity determinations secure financial support as well as custody and visitation rights. For a child, at stake is the right to shelter and aid, as well as the emotional and psychological relief in knowing who his or her father is. Paternity also secures the right to inherit, the right to access personal information about the known health risks and profiles of the paternal family, and the right to sue for harm or death of the father, resulting in loss to the child. Likewise, a child for whom parentage has been established may also be eligible to receive workers’ compensation benefits resulting from the father’s death, or other dependent-based governmental assistance.

Recent changes in technology have radically altered the process for determining paternity. In the prior days, the hearings were hotly contested with emotional testimony. In the early days of courtroom drama: at times a resistant father would be wrestled into court and a jury would compare the physical features of the alleged father and the fatherless child in question to render their verdict. In later years, blood grouping tests were performed, but this only served to rule out a certain class of blood types (such as men with type A, B, or O blood types). Cases were often dismissed if witnesses could show that the mother had sexual relations with other men during the same time as the alleged father.

Today, the use of DNA testing for positive identification in paternity litigation has rendered most of the previous legal practice and procedure obsolete. The alleged father need only submit a painless DNA sample (usually in the form of a saliva swab) to prove or disprove his parentage. DNA matching has replaced the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) Test, which was used to match not only blood type, but also tissue type and other genetic factoring. Experts had asserted that the HLA was at least 98 percent accurate. But presumptive fathers (based upon HLA results) could rebut those presumptions by proving they were out of the state, impotent (in pre-Viagra years), or sterile at the time the child was conceived. Conversely, DNA testing has a more conclusive accuracy (close to 100 percent) that becomes almost impossible to defeat. Science has at last removed the emotionally charged contested hearings in almost all cases.

What is left is a far more formal procedure in which the child obtains the protections inherent in establishing paternity or, in other cases, a father seeks to obtain rights to a child that he feels is his own. The process for such procedures is outlined in this article.

Voluntary Establishment of Paternity:

Not all procedures to establish paternity are contested. Often a couple wishes to legally establish paternity of a child born out of wedlock. A father may be very willing to support a child, but simply wants to ensure that he is indeed the biological parent. He may want a judicial determination before he commits to making child support payments or playing an emotionally-committed supportive role in the child’s life.

Other fathers believe they have been unjustly denied knowledge of, or access to, children they may have fathered. This may occur following a contentious parting of ways between parents, and the mother wants no further involvement or contact with the father, and does not want the father involved in the child’s life.

Finally, some men fear that they may not learn until years later (and perhaps at an inopportune time) that they have fathered a child. To ensure against this, men may wish to voluntarily submit to DNA testing and (in limited circumstances) compel women with whom they have had prior sexual contact to undergo a pregnancy test. (Generally, only a man alleging that he is the father of an expected child has legal standing to initiate a paternity action.) This brings closure to the relationship, and men know their future lives will not be unexpectedly jolted by news of having fathered children unknown to them.

Most states will permit a father to execute an affidavit acknowledging paternity, which eliminates the need for a court action. The affidavit must also be signed by both mother and father, notarized, and filed with the court. Once a paternity affidavit is filed and signed by a judge (if required by state law), the father cannot later attempt to rescind or void the affidavit. If the father’s name does not already appear on the child’s birth certificate, a corrected one will be reissued, showing the names of both parents.

Paternity affidavits are often encouraged to remove the stigma sometimes attaching to children who may grow up believing they were unwanted because a parent denied or avoided parentage. Attendant to a voluntary petition for a paternity determination are other determinations that the court may rule on at the same time, mostly addressing the support, involvement, and active role in a child’s life that the father will assume.

Court Actions for Paternity:

In most states, a paternity action takes the form of a civil lawsuit, and is certainly not a criminal matter. In most states, paternity actions must be filed prior to the alleged father’s death, to provide for a fair and just defense. In posthumous actions, the alleged father must have affirmatively done something to acknowledge the child prior to death (e.g., putting his name on the child’s birth certificate or identifying himself as the father in some other legal or formal action).

Only certain persons or parties have legal standing to bring a paternity action:

the mother of the child
the mother of an expected child
a man alleging that he is the biological father of a child
a man alleging that he is the biological father of an expected child
the child
a personal representative of the child
the mother and father of a child (a voluntary action filed together)
the mother and father of an expected child (a voluntary action filed together)
a state social service agency, interceding in cases of child neglect or need
a prosecutor’s office, interceding in cases of child neglect or need

The reader should review our article on American Litigation to determine the basic legal process.

The complaining party has the legal burden of establishing requisite facts in a paternity action. A petition filed with the court should contain the following basic statements:

a citation of the state paternity statute under which the action is being brought (the legal authority)
a statement of residency for the complaining party (for establishing the court’s jurisdiction over the parties)
a statement of residency for the responding party (for establishing the court’s jurisdiction over the parties)
the child’s full name and date of birth
a statement of relationship between the complaining party and the child or unborn child
a statement of relationship between the responding party and the child or unborn child
a statement that the child was or was not born while the mother was married to someone else
a statement addressing the status of any pending custody or visitation actions related to the child
a statement of any facts tending to support a finding of paternity

Similar to other civil suits, the party who files the action will be responsible for providing supporting documents, paying the filing fee with the court, and serving the responding party with a summons and copy of the complaint. There is usually a requirement that other necessary parties be notified. For example, if the action is filed by a guardian of the child or a social services office, the mother or anyone having legal custody of the child must be served along with the alleged father.

A court will not automatically order paternity tests simply because a paternity action has been filed. It will review the petition to determine if there is sufficient information contained therein to warrant or justify the compelling of such a test. If the court orders a paternity test, the mother, child, and alleged father will all be tested at a court-designated facility. If the man did not initiate the paternity action, and test results determine that he is not the father, the cost of the testing will be charged to the party who filed the paternity action.

A court determination of paternity is final, and a copy of the court’s order will be needed to establish the child’s rights, both present and future.

The Basic Procedure in California: The California Statutory Scheme:

This summary of the California process is not intended to be an all inclusive discussion of the law applicable to an action to establish Paternity in the State of California, but does include basic provisions. The reader should obtain legal counsel for further advice before filing or contesting the action

What is an action for “Paternity or Parentage”? An action filed under the Uniform Parentage Act is called a “paternity” case. The goal of a paternity case is to establish whether a person is or is not a natural parent of a child and, if parentage is established, to determine how the child will be parented and who should help pay for the support of the child.

When may an action for Paternity be brought in California under the Uniform Parentage Act?

(a) A child, the child’s natural mother, a man presumed to be the child’s father under subdivision (a), (b), or (c) of Section 7611, an adoption agency to whom the child has been relinquished, or a prospective adoptive parent of the child may bring an action as follows:

(1) At any time for the purpose of declaring the existence of the father and child relationship presumed under subdivision (a), (b), or (c) of Section 7611.

(2) For the purpose of declaring the nonexistence of the father and child relationship presumed under subdivision (a), (b), or (c) of Section 7611 only if the action is brought within a reasonable time after obtaining knowledge of relevant facts. After the presumption has been rebutted, paternity of the child by another man may be determined in the same action, if he has been made a party.

(b) Any interested party may bring an action at any time for the purpose of determining the existence or nonexistence of the father and child relationship presumed under subdivision (d) or (f) of Section 7611.

Where may an action for Paternity be filed in the State of California An action brought under the California Uniform Parentage Act may be brought in the county in which the child resides, the mother resides, or the alleged father resides or is found or, if the father is deceased, in which proceedings for probate of his estate have been or could be commenced.

Who may bring an action or parentage? For a child with a presumed father, a child, the child’s natural mother, a man presumed to be the child’s father, the alleged father an adoption agency to whom the child has been relinquished, or a prospective adoptive parent of the child may bring an action to establish paternity.An action to determine the existence of the father and child relationship with respect to a child who has no presumed father under Section 7611 or whose presumed father is deceased may be brought by the child or personal representative of the child, the Department of Child Support Services, the mother or the personal representative or a parent of the mother if the mother has died or is a minor, a man alleged or alleging himself to be the father, or the personal representative or a parent of the alleged father if the alleged father has died or is a minor.

Who represents the interests of the child(ren)? The child may, if under the age of 12 years, and shall if 12 years of age or older, be made a party to the action. The child shall be represented by a guardian ad litem appointed by the court. The guardian ad litem need not be represented by counsel if the guardian ad litem is a relative of the child.

Are there time limits to the filing of an action to establish parentage?

(a) A child, the child’s natural mother, or a man presumed to be the child’s father may bring an action as follows:

(1) At any time for the purpose of declaring the existence of the father and child relationship presumed under Section 7611.

(2) For the purpose of declaring the nonexistence of the father and child relationship presumed under subdivision Section 7611 only if the action is brought within a reasonable time after obtaining knowledge of relevant facts.

(c) An action to determine the existence of the father and child relationship with respect to a child who has no presumed father under Section 7611 or whose presumed father is deceased may be brought by the child or personal representative of the child, the Department of Child Support Services, the mother or the personal representative or a parent of the mother if the mother has died or is a minor, a man alleged or alleging himself to be the father, or the personal representative or a parent of the alleged father if the alleged father has died or is a minor.

(d) A man not a presumed father may bring an action for the purpose of declaring that he is the natural father of a child having a presumed father under Section 7611, if the mother relinquishes for, consents to, or proposes to relinquish for or consent to, the adoption of the child. An action under this section shall be brought within 30 days after (1) the man is served as prescribed in Section 7666 with a notice that he is or could be the father of the child or (2) the birth of the child, whichever is later.

What are the jurisdictional prerequisites to filing an action for parentage in the California courts? The jurisdiction of the California Family Court is very broad. Basically, A person who resides in the State of California or has sexual intercourse in the State of California thereby submits to the jurisdiction of the courts of the State of California as to an action for paternity brought under this chapter with respect to a child who may have been conceived by that act of intercourse.

Under what circumstances are certain individuals “presumed” to be the father of the minor child(ren)? With the following exceptions, the child of a wife cohabiting with her husband, who is not impotent or sterile, is conclusively presumed to be a child of the marriage, except:

(a) If the court finds that the conclusions of all the experts, as disclosed by the evidence based on blood tests performed pursuant to the Uniform Act on Blood Tests to Determine Paternity (Section 7550), are that the husband is not the father of the child, the question of paternity of the husband shall be resolved accordingly.

(b) The notice of motion for blood tests under this section may be filed not later than two years from the child’s date of birth by the husband, or for the purposes of establishing paternity by the presumed father or the child through or by the child’s guardian ad litem.

(c) The notice of motion for blood tests under this section may be filed by the mother of the child not later than two years from the child’s date of birth if the child’s biological father has filed an affidavit with the court acknowledging paternity of the child.

(d) The notice of motion for blood tests pursuant to this section shall be supported by a declaration under oath submitted by the moving party stating the factual basis for placing the issue of paternity before the court.

If an action to determine parentage is filed, can the Petitioner and custodial parent receive court ordered support prior to the actual determination of parentage? Yes, in all contested paternity actions where a presumption of paternity as defined in sections 7611 through 7614 exists, upon motion by a party, the court may order temporary support for the child pending a judicial determination of parentage.

Will the parties be required to submit to genetic testing? The court may, and upon request of a party, shall, require the child, mother, or alleged father to submit to genetic tests, including blood tests. If the requesting party is the mother or the alleged father, the court shall require that the request be made pursuant to a sworn statement. The sworn statement made by the party must either: (1) Allege paternity setting forth facts establishing a reasonable possibility of the requisite sexual contact between the parties; or (2) Deny paternity setting forth facts establishing a reasonable possibility of the non-existence of sexual contact between the parties.

Who performs the genetic tests? The laboratory performing the testing shall be one approved by an accreditation body designated by the United States Secretary of Health and Human Services.

If a man is determined to be the father of the child(ren), is he obligated to support the child? He would then have the same duty to support the minor child as he would a child he fathered where the issue of parentage was not raised.

If an action to determine parentage is filed and it is determined that a certain individual is the father of the minor child(ren) and that determination contradicts the child’s birth certificate will the birth certificate be changed? Yes, upon the order of a court in California, or any other state, a new birth certificate will be issued reflecting the father as established in the court order.

Can this procedure be used to establish the mother – child relationship? Yes, any interested party may bring an action to determine the existence or nonexistence of a mother and child relationship.

Procedures:

The process for determining parentage in the State of California begins with the filing of the Petition. The Respondent is then served with a copy of the Petition and a Summons. The Summons informs the Respondent of the action and informs the Respondent of their duty to respond to the action.

Generally, the Court will order a Pretrial Hearing after service of process. This Pretrial Hearing is generally informal and the public is barred. the judge conducting the hearing will evaluate the probability of determining the existence or nonexistence of the father and child relationship in a trial and whether a judicial declaration of the relationship would be in the best interest of the child. On the basis of the evaluation, an appropriate recommendation for settlement shall be made to the parties, which may include any of the following: (1) That the action be dismissed with or without prejudice; (2) That the matter be compromised by an agreement among the alleged father, the mother, and the child; (3) That the alleged father voluntarily acknowledge his paternity of the child.

If a party refuses to accept one of the above recommendations and genetic tests, including blood tests have not been taken, the court shall require the parties to submit to genetic tests, if practicable. Thereafter the judge shall make an appropriate final recommendation. If a party refuses to accept the final recommendation, the action shall be set for trial.

Statutes:

California Family Code

DIVISION 12. PARENT AND CHILD RELATIONSHIP

PART 2. PRESUMPTION CONCERNING CHILD OF MARRIAGE
AND BLOOD TESTS TO DETERMINE PATERNITY

CHAPTER 1. CHILD OF WIFE COHABITING WITH HUSBAND

§7540:

Except as provided in Section 7541, the child of a wife cohabiting with her husband, who is not impotent or sterile, is conclusively presumed to be a child of the marriage.

§7541:

(a) Notwithstanding Section 7540, if the court finds that the conclusions of all the experts, as disclosed by the evidence based on blood tests performed pursuant to Chapter 2 (commencing with Section 7550), are that the husband is not the father of the child, the question of paternity of the husband shall be resolved accordingly.

(e) Subdivision (a) does not apply, and blood tests may not be used to challenge paternity, in any of the following cases:

(1) A case that reached final judgment of paternity on or before September 30, 1980.

(2) A case coming within Section 7613.

(3) A case in which the wife, with the consent of the husband, conceived by means of a surgical procedure.

CHAPTER 2. BLOOD TESTS TO DETERMINE PATERNITY

§7550:

This chapter may be cited as the Uniform Act on Blood Tests to Determine Paternity.

§7551:

In a civil action or proceeding in which paternity is a relevant fact, the court may upon its own initiative or upon suggestion made by or on behalf of any person who is involved, and shall upon motion of any party to the action or proceeding made at a time so as not to delay the proceedings unduly, order the mother, child, and alleged father to submit to genetic tests. If a party refuses to submit to the tests, the court may resolve the question of paternity against that party or enforce its order if the rights of others and the interests of justice so require. A party’s refusal to submit to the tests is admissible in evidence in any proceeding to determine paternity. For the purposes of this chapter, “genetic tests” means any genetic test that is generally acknowledged as reliable by accreditation bodies designated by the United States Secretary of Health and Human Services.

§7551.5:

All hospitals, local child support agencies, welfare offices, and family courts shall facilitate genetic tests for purposes of enforcement of this chapter. This may include having a health care professional available for purposes of extracting samples to be used for genetic testing.

§7552:

The genetic tests shall be performed by a laboratory approved by any accreditation body that has been approved by the United States Secretary of Health and Human Services. Any party or person at whose suggestion the tests have been ordered may demand that other experts, qualified as examiners of blood types, perform independent tests under order of the court, the results of which may be offered in evidence. The number and qualifications of these experts shall be determined by the court.

§7552.5:

(a) A copy of the results of all genetic tests performed under Section 7552 or 7558 shall be served upon all parties, by any method of service authorized under Chapter 5 (commencing with Section 1010) of Title 14 of Part 2 of the Code of Civil Procedure except personal service, no later than 20 days prior to any hearing in which the genetic test results may be admitted into evidence. The genetic test results shall be accompanied by a declaration under penalty of perjury of the custodian of records or other qualified employee of the laboratory that conducted the genetic tests, stating in substance each of the following:

(1) The declarant is the duly authorized custodian of the records or other qualified employee of the laboratory, and has authority to certify the records.

(2) A statement which establishes in detail the chain of custody of all genetic samples collected, including the date on which the genetic sample was collected, the identity of each person from whom a genetic sample was collected, the identity of the person who performed or witnessed the collecting of the genetic samples and packaged them for transmission to the laboratory, the date on which the genetic samples were received by the laboratory, the identity of the person who unpacked the samples and forwarded them to the person who performed the laboratory analysis of the genetic sample, and the identification and qualifications of all persons who performed the laboratory analysis and published the results.

(3) A statement which establishes that the procedures used by the laboratory to conduct the tests for which the test results are attached are used in the laboratory’s ordinary course of business to ensure accuracy and proper identification of genetic samples.

(4) The genetic test results were prepared at or near the time of completion of the genetic tests by personnel of the business qualified to perform genetic tests in the ordinary course of business.

(b) The genetic test results shall be admitted into evidence at the hearing or trial to establish paternity, without the need for foundation testimony of authenticity and accuracy, unless a written objection to the genetic test results is filed with the court and served on all other parties, by any party no later than five days prior to the hearing or trial where paternity is at issue.

(c) If a written objection is filed with the court and served on all parties within the time specified in subdivision (b), experts appointed by the court shall be called by the court as witnesses to testify to their findings and are subject to cross-examination by the parties.

(d) If a genetic test reflects a paternity index of 100 or greater, the copy of the results mailed under subdivision (a) shall be accompanied with a voluntary declaration of paternity form, information prepared according to Section 7572.

§7553:

The compensation of each expert witness appointed by the court shall be fixed at a reasonable amount. It shall be paid as the court shall order. The court may order that it be paid by the parties in the proportions and at the times the court prescribes, or that the proportion of any party be paid by the county, and that, after payment by the parties or the county or both, all or part or none of it be taxed as costs in the action or proceeding.

§7554:

(a) If the court finds that the conclusions of all the experts, as disclosed by the evidence based upon the tests, are that the alleged father is not the father of the child, the question of paternity shall be resolved accordingly.

(b) If the experts disagree in their findings or conclusions, or if the tests show the probability of the alleged father’s paternity, the question, subject to Section 352 of the Evidence Code, shall be submitted upon all the evidence, including evidence based upon the tests.

§7555:

(a) There is a rebuttable presumption, affecting the burden of proof, of paternity, if the court finds that the paternity index, as calculated by the experts qualified as examiners of genetic markers, is 100 or greater. This presumption may be rebutted by a preponderance of the evidence.

(b) As used in this section:

(1) “Genetic markers” mean separate genes or complexes of genes identified as a result of genetic tests.

(2) “Paternity index” means the commonly accepted indicator used for denoting the existence of paternity. It expresses the relative strength of the test results for and against paternity. The paternity index, computed using results of various paternity tests following accepted statistical principles, shall be in accordance with the method of expression accepted at the International Conference on Parentage Testing at Airlie House, Virginia, May 1982, sponsored by the American Association of Blood Banks.

§7556:

This part applies to criminal actions subject to the following limitations and provisions:

(a) An order for the tests shall be made only upon application of a party or on the court’s initiative.

(b) The compensation of the experts shall be paid by the county under order of court.

(c) The court may direct a verdict of acquittal upon the conclusions of all the experts under Section 7554; otherwise, the case shall be submitted for determination upon all the evidence.

§7557:

Nothing in this part prevents a party to an action or proceeding from producing other expert evidence on the matter covered by this part; but, where other expert witnesses are called by a party to the action or proceeding, their fees shall be paid by the party calling them and only ordinary witness fees shall be taxed as costs in the action or proceeding.

§7558:

(a) This section applies only to cases where support enforcement services are being provided by the local child support agency pursuant to Section 17400.

(b) In any civil action or proceeding in which paternity is a relevant fact, and in which the issue of paternity is contested, the local child support agency may issue an administrative order requiring the mother, child, and the alleged father to submit to genetic testing if any of the following conditions exist:

(1) The person alleging paternity has signed a statement under penalty of perjury that sets forth facts that establish a reasonable possibility of the requisite sexual conduct between the mother and the alleged father.

(2) The person denying paternity has signed a statement under penalty of perjury that sets forth facts that establish a reasonable possibility of the nonexistence of the requisite sexual contact between the parties.

(3) The alleged father has filed an answer in the action or proceeding in which paternity is a relevant fact and has requested that genetic tests be performed.

(4) The mother and the alleged father agree in writing to submit to genetic tests.

(c) Notwithstanding subdivision (b), the local child support agency may not order an individual to submit to genetic tests if the individual has been found to have good cause for failure to cooperate in the determination of paternity pursuant to Section 11477 of the Welfare and Institutions Code.

(d) The local child support agency shall pay the costs of any genetic tests that are ordered under subdivision (b), subject to the county obtaining a court order for reimbursement from the alleged father if paternity is established under Section 7553.

(e) Nothing in this section prohibits any person who has been ordered by the local child support agency to submit to genetic tests pursuant to this section from filing a notice of motion with the court in the action or proceeding in which paternity is a relevant fact seeking relief from the local child support agency’s order to submit to genetic tests. In that event, the court shall resolve the issue of whether genetic tests should be ordered as provided in Section 7551. If any person refuses to submit to the tests after receipt of the administrative order pursuant to this section and fails to seek relief from the court from the administrative order either prior to the scheduled tests or within 10 days after the tests are scheduled, the court may resolve the question of paternity against that person or enforce the administrative order if the rights of others or the interest of justice so require. Except as provided in subdivision (c), a person’s refusal to submit to tests ordered by the local child support agency is admissible in evidence in any proceeding to determine paternity if a notice of motion is not filed within the timeframes specified in this subdivision.

(f) If the original test result creates a rebuttable presumption of paternity under Section 7555 and the result is contested, the local child support agency shall order an additional test only upon request and advance payment of the contestant.

CHAPTER 3. ESTABLISHMENT OF PATERNITY BY VOLUNTARY DECLARATION

§7570:

The Legislature hereby finds and declares as follows:

(a) There is a compelling state interest in establishing paternity for all children. Establishing paternity is the first step toward a child support award, which, in turn, provides children with equal rights and access to benefits, including, but not limited to, social security, health insurance, survivors’ benefits, military benefits, and inheritance rights. Knowledge of family medical history is often necessary for correct medical diagnosis and treatment.Additionally, knowing one’s father is important to a child’s development.

(b) A simple system allowing for establishment of voluntary paternity will result in a significant increase in the ease of establishing paternity, a significant increase in paternity establishment, an increase in the number of children who have greater access to child support and other benefits, and a significant decrease in the time and money required to establish paternity due to the removal of the need for a lengthy and expensive court process to determine and establish paternity and is in the public interest.

§7571:

(a) On and after January 1, 1995, upon the event of a live birth, prior to an unmarried mother leaving any hospital, the person responsible for registering live births under Section 102405 of the Health and Safety Code shall provide to the natural mother and shall attempt to provide, at the place of birth, to the man identified by the natural mother as the natural father, a voluntary declaration of paternity together with the written materials described in Section 7572. Staff in the hospital shall witness the signatures of parents signing a voluntary declaration of paternity and shall forward the signed declaration to the Department of Child Support Services within 20 days of the date the declaration was signed. A copy of the declaration shall be made available to each of the attesting parents.

(b) No health care provider shall be subject to any civil, criminal, or administrative liability for any negligent act or omission relative to the accuracy of the information provided, or for filing the declaration with the appropriate state or local agencies.

(c) The local child support agency shall pay the sum of ten dollars ($10) to birthing hospitals and other entities that provide prenatal services for each completed declaration of paternity that is filed with the Department of Child Support Services, provided that the local child support agency and the hospital or other entity providing prenatal services has entered into a written agreement that specifies the terms an d conditions for the payment as required by federal law.

(d) If the declaration is not registered by the person responsible for registering live births at the hospital, it may be completed by the attesting parents, notarized, and mailed to the Department of Child Support Services at any time after the child’s birth.

(e) Prenatal clinics shall offer prospective parents the opportunity to sign a voluntary declaration of paternity. In order to be paid for their services as provided in subdivision (c), prenatal clinics must ensure that the form is witnessed and forwarded to the Department of Child Support Services within 20 days of the date the declaration was signed.

(f) Declarations shall be made available without charge at all local child support agency offices, offices of local registrars of births and deaths, courts, and county welfare departments within this state. Staff in these offices shall witness the signatures of parents wishing to sign a voluntary declaration of paternity and shall be responsible for forwarding the signed declaration to the Department of Child Support Services within 20 days of the date the declaration was signed.

(g) The Department of Child Support Services, at its option, may pay the sum of ten dollars ($10) to local registrars of births and deaths, county welfare departments, or courts for each completed declaration of paternity that is witnessed by staff in these offices and filed with the Department of Child Support Services. In order to receive payment, the Department of Child Support Services and the entity shall enter into a written agreement that specifies the terms and conditions for payment as required by federal law. The Department of Child Support Services shall study the effect of the ten dollar ($10) payment on obtaining completed voluntary declaration of paternity forms and shall report to the Legislature on any recommendations to change the ten dollar ($10) optional payment, if appropriate, by January 1, 2000.

(h) The Department of Child Support Services and local child support agencies shall publicize the availability of the declarations. The local child support agency shall make the declaration, together with the written materials described in subdivision (a) of Section 7572, available upon request to any parent and any agency or organization that is required to offer parents the opportunity to sign a voluntary declaration of paternity. The local child support agency shall also provide qualified staff to answer parents’ questions regarding the declaration and the process of establishing paternity.

(i) Copies of the declaration and any rescissions filed with the Department of Child Support Services shall be made available only to the parents, the child, the local child support agency, the county welfare department, the county counsel, the State Department of Health Services, and the courts.

(j) Publicly funded or licensed health clinics, pediatric offices, Head Start programs, child care centers, social services providers, prisons, and schools may offer parents the opportunity to sign a voluntary declaration of paternity. In order to be paid for their services as provided in subdivision (c), publicly funded or licensed health clinics, pediatric offices, Head Start programs, child care centers, social services providers, prisons, and schools shall ensure that the form is witnessed and forwarded to the Department of Child Support Services.

(k) Any agency or organization required to offer parents the opportunity to sign a voluntary declaration of paternity shall also identify parents who are willing to sign, but were unavailable when the child was born. The organization shall then contact these parents within 10 days and again offer the parent the opportunity to sign a voluntary declaration of paternity.

§7572:

(a) The Department of Child Support Services, in consultation with the State Department of Health Services, the California Association of Hospitals and Health Systems, and other affected health provider organizations, shall work cooperatively to develop written materials to assist providers and parents in complying with this chapter. This written material shall be updated periodically by the Department of Child Support Services to reflect changes in law, procedures, or public need.

(b) The written materials for parents which shall be attached to the form specified in Section 7574 and provided to unmarried parents shall contain the following information:

(1) A signed voluntary declaration of paternity that is filed with the Department of Child Support Services legally establishes paternity.

(2) The legal rights and obligations of both parents and the child that result from the establishment of paternity.

(3) An alleged father’s constitutional rights to have the issue of paternity decided by a court; to notice of any hearing on the issue of paternity; to have an opportunity to present his case to the court, including his right to present and cross-examine witnesses; to have an attorney represent him; and to have an attorney appointed to represent him if he cannot afford one in a paternity action filed by a local child support agency.

(4) That by signing the voluntary declaration of paternity, the father is voluntarily waiving his constitutional rights.

(c) Parents shall also be given oral notice of the rights and responsibilities specified in subdivision (b). Oral notice may be accomplished through the use of audio or videotape programs developed by the Department of Child Support Services to the extent permitted by federal law.

(d) The Department of Child Support Services shall, free of charge, make available to hospitals, clinics, and other places of birth any and all informational and training materials for the program under this chapter, as well as the paternity declaration form. The Department of Child Support Services shall make training available to every participating hospital, clinic, local registrar of births and deaths, and other place of birth no later than June 30, 1999.

(e) The Department of Child Support Services may adopt regulations, including emergency regulations, necessary to implement this chapter.

§7573:

Except as provided in Sections 7575, 7576, and 7577, a completed voluntary declaration of paternity, as described in Section 7574, that has been filed with the Department of Child Support Services shall establish the paternity of a child and shall have the same force and effect as a judgment for paternity issued by a court of competent jurisdiction. The voluntary declaration of paternity shall be recognized as a basis for the establishment of an order for child custody, visitation, or child support.

§7574:

(a) The voluntary declaration of paternity shall be executed on a form developed by the Department of Child Support Services in consultation with the State Department of Health Services, the California Family Support Council, and child support advocacy groups.

(b) The form described in subdivision (a) shall contain, at a minimum, the following:

(1) The name and the signature of the mother.

(2) The name and the signature of the father.

(3) The name of the child.

(4) The date of birth of the child.

(5) A statement by the mother that she has read and understands the written materials described in Section 7572, that the man who has signed the voluntary declaration of paternity is the only possible father, and that she consents to the establishment of paternity by signing the voluntary declaration of paternity.

(6) A statement by the father that he has read and understands the written materials described in Section 7572, that he understands that by signing the voluntary declaration of paternity he is waiving his rights as described in the written materials, that he is the biological father of the child, and that he consents to the establishment of paternity by signing the voluntary declaration of paternity.

(7) The name and the signature of the person who witnesses the signing of the declaration by the mother and the father.

§7575:

(a) Either parent may rescind the voluntary declaration of paternity by filing a rescission form with the Department of Child Support Services within 60 days of the date of execution of the declaration by the attesting father or attesting mother, whichever signature is later, unless a court order for custody, visitation, or child support has been entered in an action in which the signatory seeking to rescind was a party. The Department of Child Support Services shall develop a form to be used by parents to rescind the declaration of paternity and instruction on how to complete and file the rescission with the Department of Child Support Services. The form shall include a declaration under penalty of perjury completed by the person filing the rescission form that certifies that a copy of the rescission form was sent by any form of mail requiring a return receipt to the other person who signed the voluntary declaration of paternity. A copy of the return receipt shall be attached to the rescission form when filed with the Department of Child Support Services. The form and instructions shall be written in simple, easy to understand language and shall be made available at the local family support office and the office of local registrar of births and deaths: The department shall, upon written request, provide to a court or commissioner a copy of any rescission form filed with the department that is relevant to proceedings before the court or commissioner.

(b)(1) Notwithstanding Section 7573, if the court finds that the conclusions of all of the experts based upon the results of the genetic tests performed pursuant to Chapter 2 (commencing with Section 7550) are that the man who signed the voluntary declaration is not the father of the child, the court may set aside the voluntary declaration of paternity unless the court determines that denial of the action to set aside the voluntary declaration of paternity is in the best interest of the child, after consideration of all of the following factors:

(A) The age of the child.

(B) The length of time since the execution of the voluntary declaration of paternity by the man who signed the voluntary declaration.

(C) The nature, duration, and quality of any relationship between the man who signed the voluntary declaration and the child, including the duration and frequency of any time periods during which the child and the man who signed the voluntary declaration resided in the same household or enjoyed a parent-child relationship.

D) The request of the man who signed the voluntary declaration that the parent-child relationship continue.

(E) Notice by the biological father of the child that he does not oppose preservation of the relationship between the man who signed the voluntary declaration and the child.

(F) The benefit or detriment to the child in establishing the biological parentage of the child.

(G) Whether the conduct of the man who signed the voluntary declaration has impaired the ability to ascertain the identity of, or get support from, the biological father.

(H) Additional factors deemed by the court to be relevant to its determination of the best interest of the child.

(2) If the court denies the action, the court shall state on the record the basis for the denial of the action and any supporting facts.

(3)(A) The notice of motion for genetic tests under this section may be filed not later than two years from the date of the child’s birth by a local child support agency, the mother, the man who signed the voluntary declaration as the child’s father, or in an action to determine the existence or nonexistence of the father and child relationship pursuant to Section 7630 or in any action to establish an order for child custody, visitation, or child support based upon the voluntary declaration of paternity. (B) The local child support agency’s authority under this subdivision is limited to those circumstances where there is a conflict between a voluntary acknowledgment of paternity and a judgment of paternity or a conflict between two or more voluntary acknowledgments of paternity.

(4) The notice of motion for genetic tests pursuant to this section shall be supported by a declaration under oath submitted by the moving party stating the factual basis for putting the issue of paternity before the court.

(c)(1) Nothing in this chapter shall be construed to prejudice or bar the rights of either parent to file an action or motion to set aside the voluntary declaration of paternity on any of the grounds described in, and within the time limits specified in, Section 473 of the Code of Civil Procedure. If the action or motion to set aside a judgment is required to be filed within a specified time period under Section 473 of the Code of Civil Procedure, the period within which the action or motion to set aside the voluntary declaration of paternity must be filed shall commence on the date that the court makes an initial order for custody, visitation, or child support based upon a voluntary declaration of paternity. (2) The parent or local child support agency seeking to set aside the voluntary declaration of paternity shall have the burden of proof. (3) Any order for custody, visitation, or child support shall remain in effect until the court determines that the voluntary declaration of paternity should be set aside, subject to the court’s power to modify the orders as otherwise provided by law. (4) Nothing in this section is intended to restrict a court from acting as a court of equity. (5) If the voluntary declaration of paternity is set aside pursuant to paragraph (1), the court shall order that the mother, child, and alleged father submit to genetic tests pursuant to Chapter 2 (commencing with Section 7550). If the court finds that the conclusions of all the experts, as disclosed by the evidence based upon the genetic tests, are that the person who executed the voluntary declaration of paternity is not the father of the child, the question of paternity shall be resolved accordingly. If the person who executed the declaration as the father of the child is not excluded as a possible father, the question of paternity shall be resolved as otherwise provided by law. If the person who executed the declaration of paternity is ultimately determined to be the father of the child, any child support that accrued under an order based upon the voluntary declaration of paternity shall remain due and owing. (6) The Judicial Council shall develop the forms and procedures necessary to effectuate this subdivision.

§7576:

The following provisions shall apply for voluntary declarations signed on or before December 31, 1996.

(a) Except as provided in subdivision (d), the child of a woman and a man executing a declaration of paternity under this chapter is conclusively presumed to be the man’s child. The presumption under this section has the same force and effect as the presumption under Section 7540.

(b) A voluntary declaration of paternity shall be recognized as the basis for the establishment of an order for child custody or support.

(c) In any action to rebut the presumption created by this section, a voluntary declaration of paternity shall be admissible as evidence to determine paternity of the child named in the voluntary declaration of paternity.

(d) The presumption established by this chapter may be rebutted by any person by requesting blood or genetic tests pursuant to Chapter 2 (commencing with Section 7550). The notice of motion for blood or genetic tests pursuant to this section shall be supported by a declaration under oath submitted by the moving party stating the factual basis for placing the issue of paternity before the court.The notice of motion for blood tests shall be made within three years from the date of execution of the declaration by the attesting father, or by the attesting mother, whichever signature is later.The two-year statute of limitations specified in subdivision (b) of Section 7541 is inapplicable for purposes of this section.

(e) A presumption under this chapter shall override all statutory presumptions of paternity except a presumption arising under Section 7540 or 7555.

§7577:

(a) Notwithstanding Section 7573, a voluntary declaration of paternity that is signed by a minor parent or minor parents shall not establish paternity until 60 days after both parents have reached the age of 18 years or are emancipated, whichever first occurs.

(b) A parent who signs a voluntary declaration of paternity when he or she is a minor may rescind the voluntary declaration of paternity at any time up to 60 days after the parent reaches the age of 18 or becomes emancipated whichever first occurs.

(c) A voluntary declaration of paternity signed by a minor creates a rebuttable presumption of paternity until the date that it establishes paternity as specified in subdivision (a).

(d) A voluntary declaration of paternity signed by a minor shall be admissible as evidence in any civil action to establish paternity of the minor named in the voluntary declaration.

(e) A voluntary declaration of paternity that is signed by a minor shall not be admissible as evidence in a criminal prosecution for violation of Section 261.5 of the Penal Code.

PART 3. UNIFORM PARENTAGE ACT

CHAPTER 1. GENERAL PROVISIONS

§7600:

This part may be cited as the Uniform Parentage Act.

§7601:

“Parent and child relationship” as used in this part means the legal relationship existing between a child and the child’s natural or adoptive parents incident to which the law confers or imposes rights, privileges, duties, and obligations. The term includes the mother and child relationship and the father and child relationship.

§7602:

The parent and child relationship extends equally to every child and to every parent, regardless of the marital status of the parents.

§7603:

Section 3140 is applicable to proceedings pursuant to this part.

§7604:

A court may order pendente lite relief consisting of a custody or visitation order pursuant to Part 2 (commencing with Section 3020) of Division 8, if the court finds both of the following:(a) Based on the tests authorized by Section 7541, a parent and child relationship exists pursuant to Section 7540.(b) The custody or visitation order would be in the best interest of the child.

§7604.5:

Notwithstanding any other provision of law, bills for pregnancy, childbirth, and genetic testing shall be admissible as evidence without third-party foundation testimony and shall constitute prima facie evidence of costs incurred for those services.

CHAPTER 2. ESTABLISHING PARENT AND CHILD RELATIONSHIP

§7610:

The parent and child relationship may be established as follows:

(a) Between a child and the natural mother, it may be established by proof of her having given birth to the child, or under this part.

(b) Between a child and the natural father, it may be established under this part.

§7611:

A man is presumed to be the natural father of a child if he meets the conditions provided in Chapter 1 (commencing with Section 7540) or Chapter 3 (commencing with Section 7570) of Part 2 or in any of the following subdivisions:

(a) He and the child’s natural mother are or have been married to each other and the child is born during the marriage, or within 300 days after the marriage is terminated by death, annulment, declaration of invalidity, or divorce, or after a judgment of separation is entered by a court.

(b) Before the child’s birth, he and the child’s natural mother have attempted to marry each other by a marriage solemnized in apparent compliance with law, although the attempted marriage is or could be declared invalid, and either of the following is true:

(1) If the attempted marriage could be declared invalid only by a court, the child is born during the attempted marriage, or within 300 days after its termination by death, annulment, declaration of invalidity, or divorce.

(2) If the attempted marriage is invalid without a court order, the child is born within 300 days after the termination of cohabitation.

(c) After the child’s birth, he and the child’s natural mother have married, or attempted to marry, each other by a marriage solemnized in apparent compliance with law, although the attempted marriage is or could be declared invalid, and either of the following is true:

(1) With his consent, he is named as the child’s father on the child’s birth certificate.

(2) He is obligated to support the child under a written voluntary promise or by court order.

(d) He receives the child into his home and openly holds out the child as his natural child.

(e) If the child was born and resides in a nation with which the United States engages in an Orderly Departure Program or successor program, he acknowledges that he is the child’s father in a declaration under penalty of perjury, as specified in Section 2015.5 of the Code of Civil Procedure. This subdivision shall remain in effect only until January 1, 1997, and on that date shall become inoperative.

§7611.5:

Where Section 7611 does not apply, a man shall not be presumed to be the natural father of a child if either of the following is true:

(a) The child was conceived as a result of an act in violation of Section 261 of the Penal Code and the father was convicted of that violation.

(b) The child was conceived as a result of an act in violation of Section 261.5 of the Penal Code, the father was convicted of that violation, and the mother was under the age of 15 years and the father was 21 years of age or older at the time of conception.

§7612:

(a) Except as provided in Chapter 1 (commencing with Section 7540) and Chapter 3 (commencing with Section 7570) of Part 2 or in Section 20102, a presumption under Section 7611 is a rebuttable presumption affecting the burden of proof and may be rebutted in an appropriate action only by clear and convincing evidence.

(b) If two or more presumptions arise under Section 7611 which conflict with each other, the presumption which on the facts is founded on the weightier considerations of policy and logic controls.

§7613:

(a) If, under the supervision of a licensed physician and surgeon and with the consent of her husband, a wife is inseminated artificially with semen donated by a man not her husband, the husband is treated in law as if he were the natural father of a child thereby conceived. The husband’s consent must be in writing and signed by him and his wife. The physician and surgeon shall certify their signatures and the date of the insemination, and retain the husband’s consent as part of the medical record, where it shall be kept confidential and in a sealed file. However, the physician and surgeon’s failure to do so does not affect the father and child relationship. All papers and records pertaining to the insemination, whether part of the permanent record of a court or of a file held by the supervising physician and surgeon or elsewhere, are subject to inspection only upon an order of the court for good cause shown.

(b) The donor of semen provided to a licensed physician and surgeon for use in artificial insemination of a woman other than the donor’s wife is treated in law as if he were not the natural father of a child thereby conceived.

§7614:

(a) A promise in writing to furnish support for a child, growing out of a presumed or alleged father and child relationship, does not require consideration and, subject to Section 7632, is enforceable according to its terms.

(b) In the best interest of the child or the mother, the court may, and upon the promisor’s request shall, order the promise to be kept in confidence and designate a person or agency to receive and disburse on behalf of the child all amounts paid in performance of the promise.

CHAPTER 3. JURISDICTION AND VENUE

§7620:

(a) A person who has sexual intercourse in this state thereby submits to the jurisdiction of the courts of this state as to an action brought under this part with respect to a child who may have been conceived by that act of intercourse.

(b) An action under this part may be brought in the county in which the child resides or is found or, if the father is deceased, in which proceedings for probate of his estate have been or could be commenced.

CHAPTER 4. DETERMINATION OF PARENT AND CHILD RELATIONSHIP

Article 1. Determination of Father and Child Relationship

§7630:

(1) At any time for the purpose of declaring the existence of the father and child relationship presumed under subdivision (a), (b), or (c) of Section 7611.

(d) (1) If a proceeding has been filed under Chapter 2 (commencing with Section 7820) of Part 4, an action under subdivision (a) or (b) shall be consolidated with that proceeding. The parental rights of the presumed father shall be determined as set forth in Sections 7820 to 7829, inclusive. (2) If a proceeding pursuant to Section 7662 has been filed under Chapter 5 (commencing with Section 7660), an action under subdivision (c) shall be consolidated with that proceeding. The parental rights of the alleged natural father shall be determined as set forth in Section 7664. (3) The consolidated action under paragraph (1) or (2) shall be heard in the court in which the proceeding under Section 7662 or Chapter 2 (commencing with Section 7820) of Part 4 is filed, unless the court finds, by clear and convincing evidence, that transferring the action to the other court poses a substantial hardship to the petitioner. Mere inconvenience does not constitute a sufficient basis for a finding of substantial hardship. If the court determines there is a substantial hardship, the consolidated action shall be heard in the court in which the paternity action is filed.

(e) (1) If any prospective adoptive parent who has physical custody of the child, or any licensed California adoption agency that has legal custody of the child, has not been joined as a party to an action to determine the existence of a father and child relationship under subdivision (a), (b), or (c), or an action for custody by the alleged natural father, the court shall join the prospective adoptive parent or licensed California adoption agency as a party upon application or on its own motion, without the necessity of a motion for joinder. A joined party shall not be required to pay a fee in connection with this action. (2) If a man brings an action to determine paternity and custody of a child who he has reason to believe is in the physical or legal custody of an adoption agency, or of one or more persons other than the child’s mother who are prospective adoptive parents, he shall serve his entire pleading on, and give notice of all proceedings to, the adoption agency or the prospective adoptive parents, or both.

(f) A party to an assisted reproduction agreement may bring an action at any time to establish a parent and child relationship consistent with the intent expressed in that assisted reproduction agreement.

§7631:

Except as to cases coming within Chapter 1 (commencing with Section 7540) of Part 2, a man not a presumed father may bring an action for the purpose of declaring that he is the natural father of a child having a presumed father under Section 7611, if the mother relinquishes for, consents to, or proposes to relinquish for or consent to, the adoption of the child. An action under this section shall be brought within 30 days after (1) the man is served as prescribed in Section 7666 with a notice that he is or could be the father of the child or (2) the birth of the child, whichever is later. The commencement of the action suspends a pending proceeding in connection with the adoption of the child until a judgment in the action is final.

§7632:

Regardless of its terms, an agreement between an alleged or presumed father and the mother or child does not bar an action under this chapter.

§7633:

An action under this chapter may be brought before the birth of the child.

§7634:

The local child support agency may, in the local child support agency’s discretion, bring an action under this chapter in any case in which the local child support agency believes it to be appropriate.

§7635:

(a) The child may, if under the age of 12 years, and shall, if 12 years of age or older, be made a party to the action. If the child is a minor and a party to the action, the child shall be represented by a guardian ad litem appointed by the court. The guardian ad litem need not be represented by counsel if the guardian ad litem is a relative of the child.

(b) The natural mother, each man presumed to be the father under Section 7611, and each man alleged to be the natural father, may be made parties and shall be given notice of the action in the manner prescribed in Section 7666 and an opportunity to be heard. Appointment of a guardian ad litem shall not be required for a minor who is a parent of the child who is the subject of the petition to establish parental relationship, unless the minor parent is unable to understand the nature of the proceedings or to assist counsel in preparing the case.

(d) In any initial or subsequent proceeding under this chapter where custody of, or visitation with, a minor child is in issue, the court may, if it determines it would be in the best interest of the minor child, appoint private counsel to represent the interests of the minor child pursuant to Chapter 10 (commencing with Section 3150) of Part 2 of Division 8.

§7636:

The judgment or order of the court determining the existence or nonexistence of the parent and child relationship is determinative for all purposes except for actions brought pursuant to Section 270 of the Penal Code.

§7637:

The judgment or order may contain any other provision directed against the appropriate party to the proceeding, concerning the duty of support, the custody and guardianship of the child, visitation privileges with the child, the furnishing of bond or other security for the payment of the judgment, or any other matter in the best interest of the child. The judgment or order may direct the father to pay the reasonable expenses of the mother’s pregnancy and confinement.

§7638:

The procedure in an action under this part to change the name of a minor or adult child for whom a parent and child relationship is established pursuant to Section 7636, upon application in accordance with Title 8 (commencing with Section 1275) of Part 3 of the Code of Civil Procedure shall conform to those provisions, except that the application for the change of name may be included with the petition filed under this part and except as provided in Sections 1277 and 1278 of the Code of Civil Procedure.

§7639:

If the judgment or order of the court is at variance with the child’s birth certificate, the court shall order that a new birth certificate be issued as prescribed in Article 2 (commencing with Section 102725) of Chapter 5 of Part 1 of Division 102 of the Health and Safety Code.

§7640:

The court may order reasonable fees of counsel, experts, and the child’s guardian ad litem, and other costs of the action and pretrial proceedings, including blood tests, to be paid by the parties, excluding any governmental entity, in proportions and at times determined by the court.

§7641:

(a) If existence of the father and child relationship is declared, or paternity or a duty of support has been acknowledged or adjudicated under this part or under prior law, the obligation of the father may be enforced in the same or other proceedings by any of the following:

(1) The mother.

(2) The child.

(3) The public authority that has furnished or may furnish the reasonable expenses of pregnancy, confinement, education, support, or funeral.

(4) Any other person, including a private agency, to the extent the person has furnished or is furnishing these expenses.

(b) The court may order support payments to be made to any of the following:

(1) The mother.

(2) The clerk of the court.

(3) A person, corporation, or agency designated to administer the payments for the benefit of the child under the supervision of the court.

(c) Willful failure to obey the judgment or order of the court is a civil contempt of the court. All remedies for the enforcement of judgments, including imprisonment for contempt, apply.

§7642:

The court has continuing jurisdiction to modify or set aside a judgment or order made under this part. A judgment or order relating to an adoption may only be modified or set aside in the same manner and under the same conditions as an order of adoption may be modified or set aside under Section 9100 or 9102.

§7643:

(a) Notwithstanding any other law concerning public hearings and records, a hearing or trial held under this part may be held in closed court without admittance of any person other than those necessary to the action or proceeding. Except as provided in subdivision

(b), all papers and records, other than the final judgment, pertaining to the action or proceeding, whether part of the permanent record of the court or of a file in a public agency or elsewhere, are subject to inspection only in exceptional cases upon an order of the court for good cause shown.(b) Papers and records pertaining to the action or proceeding that are part of the permanent record of the court are subject to inspection by the parties to the action and their attorneys.

§7644:

(a) Notwithstanding any other law, an action for child custody and support and for other relief as provided in Section 7637 may be filed based upon a voluntary declaration of paternity as provided in Chapter 3 (commencing with Section 7570) of Part 2.

(b) Except as provided in Section 7576, the voluntary declaration of paternity shall be given the same force and effect as a judgment of paternity entered by a court of competent jurisdiction. The court shall make appropriate orders as specified in Section 7637 based upon the voluntary declaration of paternity unless evidence is presented that the voluntary declaration of paternity has been rescinded by the parties or set aside as provided in Section 7575 of the Family Code.

Conclusion:

Assuming responsibility for one’s child is not only an ethically appropriate act, but legally required. At the same time, it makes sense to ensure that paternity is established since the cost of raising a child in today’s world, especially if college is sought, can easily exceed five hundred thousand dollars, perhaps twice that. The legal framework has radically simplified due to scientific advances and the process, while perhaps not enjoyable, is no longer the emotional war that prior decades witnessed. Indeed, once the scientific information is developed, most parties are able to stipulate to resolution long before trial.

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